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Design 3: Visual Organization and Information Design

Gestalt

We will begin our explorations in Design 3 by investigating Gestalt Theory, below is a brief explanation of some principles of Gestalt visual organization.

The study of gestalt originated in Germany in the 1920's. It is a form of psychology that is interested in higher order cognitive processes relative to behaviorism. The aspects of gestalt theory that interests designers are related to gestalt's investigations of visual perception, principally the relationship between the parts and the whole of visual experience.

The visual world is so complex that the mind has developed strategies for coping with confusion. The mind tries to find the simplest solution to a problem. One of the ways it does this is to form groups of items that have certain characteristics in common.

Most of what you will study about gestalt is concerned with how these groups are formed and what effect they have on perception; the stronger the grouping, the stronger the gestalt. It is this grouping that contributes to the unity in a design. Gestalt is one of the most powerful tools available to a designer for creating unity.

Gestalt theory is particularly valuable for understanding where visual organization starts, because it gives concrete evidence to how the eye organizes visual experiences.

1. The parts of a visual image may be considered, analyzed, and evaluated as distinct components.

2. The whole of a visual image is greater than the sum of its parts.

When confronted by a visual image, we seem to need to separate a dominant shape (a 'figure' with a definite contour) from what our current concerns relegate to 'background' (or 'ground'). An illustration of this is the famous ambiguous figure devised by the Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin.

Images such as this are ambiguous concerning figure and ground. Is the figure a white vase on a black background or two silhouetted profiles on a white background?

Perceptual set operates in such cases and we tend to favour one interpretation over the other. Altering the amount of black or white which is visible can create a bias towards one or the other.

When we have identified a figure, the contours seem to belong to it, and it appears to be in front of the ground.

Gestalt theory can be broken down into several principles of visual organization.

1. FIGURE/GROUND (stimulus) - The fundamental principle of perception which allows us to read imagery. This is made possible by contrast.

Example: The photograph below of a single beach stone by Josie Iselin is an excellent example of a figure (the stone) againts the ground (white space).

Another aspect of figure/ground is the gestalt concept of AREA. The principle of area states that the smaller of two overlapping figures is perceived as figure while the larger is regarded as ground. We perceive the smaller square to be a shape on top of the other figure, as opposed to a hole in the larger shape. We can reverse this perception by using shading to get our message across, as seen below.

2. SIMILARITY - The degree of sameness to each other; sensations are grouped and ordered in the mind based upon their likeness toward one another.

Example: The color print titled Lysergic Acid Diethylamide by Damien Hirst below shows multi-colored dots in a simple grid pattern. The repetiton of the dots and the colors shows two levels of similarity, one based on the shape, and the other based on the colors.

Another example of similarity in combination with a powerful use of figure/ground sensation is this paper cutout titled The Passage, by Dylan Graham.

3. PROXIMITY - Degree of distance between sensations; sensations are favored according to nearness of their parts. Closer parts from groups by visually uniting.

Example: The photograph below of a four beach stones by Josie Iselin is an excellent example of a proximity because is shows how three differently shaped stones positioned near each other form a group which is distinct from the larger stone.

4. CONTINUANCE - Grouping that results in a continuation of direction; sensations are grouped into directional forms when the receiver reads motion implied by position.

Example: The photograph below of a a sequence of beach stones by Josie Iselin is an excellent example of a continuance because it shows how the progression of shapes laid out in a clear sequence imply movement and direction.

Another example of this concept below shows how a simple line can create continuance across several shapes.

5. CLOSURE - Grouping into recognizable forms or shapes. Sensations are grouped into complete visual form through principles of similarity, proximity, and continuance. The principle of closure applies when we see complete figures even when part of the information is missing.

We see three black circles covered by a white triangle, even through it could just as easily be three incomplete circles joined together. Our minds react to patterns that are familiar, even though we often receive incomplete information. It is speculated this is a survival instinct, allowing us to complete the form of a predator even with incomplete information.

Example: The photograph by Josie Iselin below of a group of beach stones juxtaposed together along a layer of white sediment begins to imply the closure of a looped line.

These principles of visual organization serve the overarching concept that the simplest and most stable interpretations are favoured.

What the Gestalt principles of visual organization suggest is that we may be predisposed towards interpreting ambiguous images in one way rather than another by universal principles. We may accept such a proposition at the same time as accepting that such predispositions may also be generated by other factors. Similarly, we may accept the Gestalt principles whilst at the same time regarding other aspects of perception as being learned and culturally variable rather than innate. The Gestalt principles can be seen as reinforcing the notion that the world is not simply and objectively 'out there' but is constructed in the process of perception.

Depth & Rhythm

The illusion of depth on a two-dimensional surface is evident through perspective by organizing items from a certain point of view.

There are three types of perspective: atmospheric, linear, and aerial. Atmospheric perspective gives a faraway effect by means of pale or diffused textures and colors. Aerial perspective indicates distance through blurred lines, decreased sizes, and diminished details. In linear perspective parallel lines that recede into the distance, at a vanishing point, appear to get smaller and closer together or converge (figure 1). Another visual clue to notice in linear perspective is when two objects are placed on the same surface or horizon line, the lowest part of a near subject is lower in a picture than the lowest part of a farther subject (figure 2).

Rhythm is the principle of art that indicates movement by the repetition of elements or objects. In visual rhythm, you receive through your eyes rather than through your ears. Visual rhythm is created by repeated positive shapes separated by negative spaces. The repeated shapes are like the beats in music. Visual rhythms create a sensation of movement-like the real action of a bouncing ball and your eyes bounce from one shape to the next. A group of artists called the Futurists used rhythm to capture the idea of movement itself. They showed the forces of movement, called dynamism, by slanting and overlapping surfaces.

Regular Rhythms - AB,AB,AB is the most common type. Picture alternating stripes of two colors, for instance.

Progressive Rhythms - Progression occurs when there is a gradual increase or decrease in the size, number, color, or some other quality of the elements repeated. AB,AABB,AAABBB,AAAABBBB or ABC,ABD,ABE,ABF,ABG,ABH,ABI

In Class Activities

Activities if not completed during class, should be completed by the begining of next weeks class.

Gestalt Experiements

1. Using Adobe Illustrator create a new document, set the measure units to picas. Create 1x1 pica grid. Using squares and circles create examples of the Gestalt principles of visual organization:

• FIGURE/GROUND
• SIMILARITY
• PROXIMITY
• CONTINUANCE
• CLOSURE

2. Using a Adobe Illustrator create a new document and create multiple shapes of the same type and size (up to 12). Using your multiple shapes create compositions which express the meaning of each of the following words:

• Order
• Increase
• Bold
• Congested
• Tension
• Playful

Assignments

Assignmnets are due at the begining of next class.

Complete gestalt design experiment exploring Continuance for review in next class.

Create a composition of implied motion using 1-pica wide black and white lines. Lines may be placed at any angle, but must not intersect each other. You may take a strategy to always keep your lines parallel to one another. Lines may be of variable lengths. Lines may be straight or curved.

Prepare three different sketchs in your journal. Each sketch should explore a different type of motion based on the concept of continuance and implied motion through regular or progrerssive rhythms.

Dimensions

Work within a 60 x 60 pica (just under a 10 x 10") square with no boarder.

Materials

• Hot Press white Illustration/Bristol Board 14x17"
• Hot Press heavier weight paper 10x10"
• Mechanical Pencil to lightly map out lines
• Rule (calibrated for pica and inches), Compass, Straight Edge
• Black Ink and Pen
• Brush
• Mechanical Pen
• Pearl Eraser
• Rubber Cement to mount Vellum square to Illustration Board

Refer to the full class materials list. You should pick all the required materials for this class.

Mounting and presentation

The 60 x 60 pica (10x10") composition should be mounted vertically on an 14x17" piece of illustration board. Provide for a 2" margin on the top, left and right and a 5" margin on the bottom.

Protective flap and naming conventions as per syllabus presentation guidelines.

Example of Continuance - Lindsey Heim

Readings

• Chapter 2 The Intelligence of Visual Perception (i), pp 13-36. Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. University of California Press. 2004

Research

Journal: Find and document (eg. draw, photograph, collage, etc.) 6+ examples of Gestalt principles at work; include written explanations of each entry.

Visit the exhibitions and spaces listed below.

• Museum of Modern Art
  11 West 53 Street, between Fifth and Sixth avenues
  New York, NY 10019-5497
  www.moma.org
  Visit the Museum of Modern Art, select 2+ works of art which demonstrate Gestalt principles. In your journal make a sketch of each of the works of art include written explanations of each entry which should include the artist's name, the title of the work and the date, and a brief description of what Gestalt principles of FIGURE/GROUND, SIMILARITY, PROXIMITY, CONTINUANCE, CLOSURE, DEPTH & RHYTHM are utilized in the art and designs in these exhibitions.
• Any retail windows on 5th avenue between 60th and 50th streets
  Select one retail window display which demonstrate Gestalt principles. In your journal make a sketch or paste a photograph which you took of the window display and include written explanations of what the designers did in this window. Include the retail stores name, location and date. Be sure to include brief description of what Gestalt principles of FIGURE/GROUND, SIMILARITY, PROXIMITY, CONTINUANCE, CLOSURE, DEPTH & RHYTHM are utilized in the window display.

Related Information

• Laws of Organization in Perceptual Forms Max Wertheimer (1923)
• Notes about Gestalt by James T. Saw
  
• Bridget Riley on the stripe, rhythm, pace and orchestration 2 min 24 from interviews with the BBC

Below are some examples of art and design which we can identify Gestalt priciples of visual organization and design at work.

Bridget Riley, Movement in Squares 1961 Tempera on board, 48"x47" (CONTINUANCE, SIMILARITY)

Bridget Riley, Cataract 3, 1967 PVA on Canvas, 87x87 3/4" (CONTINUANCE)

Balenciaga, from the Paris spring-summer shows 2007 (CONTINUANCE and FIGURE/GROUND)

Posters by Armin Hofmann
Left: Carl Orff, Carmina Burana 1993, Concert poster. (CONTINUANCE, FIGURE/GROUND and SIMILARITY)
Right: Art education in the USA 1960, exhibition poster. (FIGURE/GROUND and CLOSURE)

Poster by Niklaus Troxler, for the Bob Stewart Arthur Blythe Jazz concert (CONTINUANCE, CLOSURE and FIGURE/GROUND)

Posters by Rene Wanner
Top Left: 2001, Un jour en ete, (A summer day), a play by Jon Fosse, at the Theatre Vidy, Lausanne
Top Right: 1999, Noir Black Schwarz Nero, exhibition on the color black in graphic design and fashion at the Musee des arts decoratifs in Lausanne (CONTINUANCE, FIGURE/GROUND)
Lower Left: 1999, Environmental poster (FIGURE/GROUND)

(FIGURE/GROUND, SIMILARITY and CLOSURE)

(FIGURE/GROUND and CLOSURE)

(FIGURE/GROUND, CONTINUANCE)

(FIGURE/GROUND and CLOSURE)

Sergei Serov, a graphic design teacher in Moscow, explored the advertising campaign for absolut vodka with his students. You can see more of his student's work online http://kak.ru/columns/serov/a3950/

Louis Vuitton store 5th Ave and 57th Street, Window Display (SIMILARITY and FIGURE/GROUND)

Men's ready to wear Corset with fan details by Jean Paul Gaultier from the House of Pleasures Collection Spring/Summer 1997 as seen in the Bergdorf Goodman Windows 5th Ave and 57th Street (CONTINUANCE)

Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Side Chair, Oak and Silk, 1897. (CONTINUANCE and CLOSURE)