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Design 3: Visual Organization and Information Design

Organizational Systems 1

More on Gestalt principles of visual organization

Figure/Ground Distortion

Figure/Ground distortions are the fundamental components of perception. They enable us to "read" what we see. All figure/ground distortions occur when there is a change in contrast. For example, a black dot (the so called figure) will begin to separate from its field (the ground) as a change in contrast occurs. The higher the contrast, the greater the perceived separation. The greater the perceived separation, the easier it is to "read" what is seen.

For example look at the photograph by Chris Marker. The dramatic contrast of the protesting students set against the tear gas and back lighting which is flattened out by the smokey white ground. This Figure/Ground distortion provides just enough visual contrast to dramatically capture the events of the May 1968 student protests in Paris.

Chris Marker, Barr (Paris, May 1968) at Peter Blum

Stimulus

Perception starts with the recognition of a stimulus, the first and most primary state of the perceptual hierarchy. A stimulus is simply a - Figure / Ground distortion, a change in a field that begins the recognition process.

For example look at the photograph by Chris Marker. The high contrast of the graphic representation of Che pops out of the jumbled and unfocused composition. This is an excellent example of how a perceptual hierarchy is established within a complex visual field.

Chris Marker, Demo 6 (Paris, 2006) at Peter Blum

Order
Upon recognition of a figure / ground distortion or multiple distortions, the mind begins seeking out a frame of reference in an attempt to bring order out of an unknown (chaos). This ordering process is governed by a set of commonly accepted perceptual "laws" known as the Gestalt perceptual principles.

The Gestalt principles, based on extensive studies of human perception, have shown that the fundamentals of perception are purely physiologically programmed to recognize stimuli in a very specific nature.

Continuity
The mind's ordering process begins by evaluating the relationships between stimuli and the field. Commonalities within stimuli are sought out and tested against two principles - Similarity and Proximity - in an attempt to establish a sense of continuity with the frame of reference.

For example the lighting at Le Palais de Tokyo in Paris creats a sense of order and continuity within a visually active interior within the museum cafe. Notice how the similarity in shape, creates a visual layer within the space. While the color differences add another level of figure / ground disruption the similarity and proximity of these forms to each other leads to a sense of order and visual continuity.

Le Palais de Tokyo cafe

Sensation

Step two of the hierarchy is the beginning of the recognition process. A stimulus becomes a sensation when commonalities in the figure/ground distortion are sought out in an attempt to bring Order and Continuity to the stimulus. All perceived sensations are governed wholly by the physiological ordering properties of the mind. The Gestalt principles of Similarity and Proximity are used at this level of the hierarchy.

Sensation - Recognition of similarity and proximity
Stimulus - Figure / Ground distortion.

Proximity
The Gestalt principle of proximity proves that the mind favors stimuli according to nearness. Those stimuli nearest to each other will tend to form groupings.

Similarity
While the principle of proximity is concerned with relationship in terms of distance between stimuli, the Gestalt principle of similarity is concerned with relationships in terms of likeness among stimuli. Those that resemble each other in shape, size, color, and direction (orientation) will tend to be seen together as a homogeneous grouping.

For example below is a visual system with makes use of similarity and proximity utilzed together to create an active figure / ground distortion.

Below you can see this very same idea occuring within the patterns repeated within the women's garments. The pattern combined with the color and tonal contrast begin to establish equilibrium through heirarchy within the composition.

19th Century Japanese woodblock print

And in the photograph below note how the figures are visually linked to each other and distinctly separate from the glistening surface of the water.

Equilibrium
The Gestalt principle of equilibrium concludes that all psychological fields tend toward excellence (or precision). In an attempt to organize a field, the mind strives for balance, simplicity and completeness - toward the most regular, and systematically precise organization possible.

Closure
The Gestalt principle of closure is used by the mind when attempting to reach equilibrium within a field. Together with the Gestalt principles of Similarity and Proximity, the mind examines the relationship of parts in an attempt to organize multiple sensations into larger shapes that are simple, balances and complete. Incomplete groupings of sensations can also reach closure, provided the relationship of parts is composed in such a manner as to allow the mind to imply the complete and balanced shape.

Below are two examples of how closure may operate.

First is the more common use of closure which implies connections within negative space to form a shape.

Second is an illustration of similarity of multiple forms (in this case black dots) which build in their proximity and totality resulting in the impression of another form, a square.

Structure

The third stage of the hierarchy is reached when equilibrium and / or closure is realized. It is at this point that structural systems of a field are revealed in the relationships of parts.

In the search for structure, the mind has a natural tendency to seek out symmetrical fields. This tendency is a continuation of the mind's attempt to bring order out of a perceived chaos. Symmetrical structural systems are the most regular, balanced and systematic of systems; they can only be realized when the discrepancies of relational sensations are reduced to a level of similarity that enables the recognition of underlying logical systems of order (a condition in which said underlying logical systems reach a level of asymmetry that implies a visible symmetrical system).

Symmetry - Asymmetry
Symmetry is the complete balance of a field. All fields strive toward symmetry and ultimately reach a certain level of symmetry. Absolute symmetry is perfect regularity within the relationship of parts in a field; anything less than perfect regularity (which exists only in mathematically calibrated compositions) is asymmetry. As the mind seeks equilibrium within a field, the relative nearness to complete regularity of parts will create the illusion of symmetry. The inability to reach relative symmetry within a balanced field constitutes asymmetry.

Look at the two examples below of symmetry and asymmetrical compositions.

The mind structures all fields into four primary types of structural symmetry; Bilateral, Rotational, Iterational, and Dilatational structure. Equilibrium within a field is achieved through the use of these structural systems on a continuum of Symmetry - Asymmetry.

This continuum of Symmetry - Asymmetry relies on four logical systems of order: Bilateral, Rotational, Iterational and Dilatational structures.

This week we will focus our attention on Bilateral structures which rely on the continuum of Symmetry - Asymmetry.

Bilateral Structure

Bilateral structure is an organization system that relies on reflection and / or duplication to achieve closure and equilibrium within a field. All bilateral fields can be divided into two identical or relatively similar halves on a single axis. The lateral axis within a field of absolute symmetry will delineate the two identical halves, while the lateral axis within an asymmetrical field will delineate two similar, but not identical, halves. The relative amount of absolute symmetry determines the orientation and position of this lateral axis within the field.

Below are some examples of Bilateral structure some which depend upon absolute symetry or asymetry.

Rorschach (Double Flat), 2005
16 silver plated instruments crushed by 250 ton industrial press, metal wire 131 x 83 x 3/4 inches 332.7 x 210.8 x 1.9 cm artist certificate CP-75-SC

Native American blanket

Illustration of the martyrdom of Saint Andrew

Constatine Brancuisi, The Endless Column. 98-foot column of metal-coated cast-iron modules on a steel spine is part of a sculptural ensemble originally installed in 1937-8. Targu-Jiu, Romania
Photograph ©Kael Alford/WMF2001

Japenese toy robot. Example of Bilateral Symmetry

Japenese toy robot. Example of Bilateral Asymmetry

Benetton advertisement. Food for work

Poster for the Freedom Theater's production of The Recital, 1973. Designer Kushida Mitsuhiro. Illustrator Kawamura Yosuke.

Benetton advertisement. AIDS - David Kirby (1992)

See more Benetton Campaigns. Many of these campaign images use Bilateral Structure in thier composition since it is one of the most effective ways to focusing a viewers attention.

This is a pair of circular prints by Damien Hirst. These examples rely on several of the gestalt principles we discussed in our first class and these include figure/ground, similariy, proximity. Each circle is made of a pattern of black spots. Although the same size, the different arrangements of these spots make the images appear very different. In one, the spots radiate out in straight lines from a central point, (Radial Structure) and in the other they spiral outwards (Rotational Structure).

In Class Activities

• Critique Continutance assignment and discuss rythem and depth.
• Discuss readings and research visited.
• Discuss, review and expand upon Gestalt principles.
• Look at additional examples of Gestalt principles at work in these images.
• Class assignment recap Gestalt principles
• Class assignment about Billateral structure.
  • Using an image from the collection of examples. Save the image to your computer.
• Place the image into Illustrator
• Using layers and the pen tool outline a shape which you can extract from the image you selected.
• Make this a closed and solid shape using the color black.
• Use your shape to create a composition using Bilateral Structure using Symmetry.

Example of how one element extracted from an image can be used to create symmetry in a bilateral structural composition.

Donald Baechler, York House Suite 3, 2000, Colored, pressed paper pulp, 12.25 x 9.25, Edition: 50

First the image is simplified and made into a black and white shape. Second the patterns are created by justaposing the shape in an interesting way. Finally the pattern is then expanded into a bilateral composition

Assignment

• Last week you visited the Museum of Modern Art and selected two works of art as well as one window display on 5th ave. Just as we did today in class take one of the photographs or sketches from your research. Choose one element to extract from from the composition.
  • Using this image, scan the drawing or place the digital photo into Illustrator
  • Using layers outline a shape which you can extract from the image you selected.
  • Make this a closed and solid shape using the color black.
  • Use your shape to create a composition of Bilateral Structure using Asymmetry.
  • Explore how the visual dynamics of balance, weight, rhythm, light and dark can support or detract from a conceptual framework of the content within a composition.

Restrictions

Work within a 10 x 10" square. If you use a boarder around the square composition, it should be a hairline.

It should be black and white.

Suggested Materials

• Hot Press Illustration Board
• Hotpress heavier weighted paper
• White vinyl or pink pearl eraser
• Scissors
• Burnisher (an old soup spoon works best)
• Rule and Straight Edge
• X-acto Knife
• Rubber Cement
• Mechanical Pen
• Magazine and imagery for collage

Print it out in and mount it on illustration board as indicated.

Save the electronic files for your final portfolio.

Mounting and presentation

Mounted vertically on an 14x17" piece of illustration board. Provide for a 2" margin on the top, left and right and a 4" margin on the bottom.

Protective flap and naming conventions as per syllabus presentation guidelines.

Example

Below see the starting point for the artwork and how a shape is extracted from this composition, used in repeat patterns of Similarity, Proximit and then arranged in an Asymetrical Bilateral Structure

Research

Read the following

Chapter 1, pp 13 - 26 Visual Explanations, by Edward Tufte, Graphics Press, 1997

Journal

Find and document in your journal 8 examples of bi-lateral structure. At least half must not be man-made forms. Write any observations about how each of these 8 examples may also have Gestalt principles of FIGURE/GROUND, SIMILARITY, PROXIMITY, CONTINUANCE and/or CLOSURE in them.

"More on Gestalt principles of visual organization is based on notes written by Robert Fisher December 1995, revised and amended in July 1997