Topics: Types of signs, Tactics for creating and refining balance
and structure in pictograms
Review Action Verb projects
Review You are an animal projects
In class work on evolving symbols
Class Notes
Definitions of types of signs and symbols
Iconograms are illustrative representations. They are iconic signs which,
as an illustrative representation, emphasize the points in common between
the signifier and the signified.
Pictograms are pictorial representations, such as ISOTYPE. Pictograms
are iconic signs which represent complex facts, not through words or sounds
but through visual carriers of meaning.
Cartograms are topographical representations with complex functions (statistics,
etc.) and iconic facts, for example an atlas or the ground plan of a house.
Diagrams are functional representations. They are visual signs which are
partly iconic representations, but are more functional carriers that illustrate,
for example, a sequence of facts or functions.
Ideograms represent a concept. Typically ideograms correspond to the sign
as a symbol which relates to the object or concept referred to, independently
of any format identification with it.
Logograms are conceptual representations like writing. They are visual,
referential linguistic signs that do not take the phonetic dimension into
consideration.
Typograms are typographical representations. A typogram is a sign that
is also composed of a sign, derived from a written repertoire such as
the alphabet.
Phonograms are phonic representations. A phonogram is a sign that is used
to signify linguistic or other sounds.
Semiotics the Study of Signs
The invention of semiotics - the analysis of signs or symbols and their
use, is attributed to the American pragmatist Charles Sanders Peirce (1839
- 1914), who saw the entire universe as an extended network of signs.
He adopted a method of classification, which divided all signs into the
three categories of icon, symbol and index based on the relation of the
sign to its referent by resemblance (icon, convention (symbol) or existential
connection (index).
Fellow American Charles W. Morris (1901 - 1979) developed the theory
further in "Foundations of the Theory of Signs (1938) and "Signs,
Language, and Behavior (1946), defining three branches of semiotics: synactics
or syntax (the relation between signs and formal modes, or the structure/patterns
in which something is expressed), semantics (the relation between signs
and meaning) and pragmatics (the relation between signs and their users).
Semantics (Sign and Meaning)
Dependent upon:
Context
Knowledge
Society
Culture
Sigmatics (Sign and Signified)
The sign as:
- Icon (illustration)
- Symbol (representation)
- Index (indicator)
Syntatics / Syntax
Sign and Formal modes:
Form
Brightness
Color
Movement
Material
Pragmatics (Sign and Intention or Interpreter)
Intention:
Imperative (addressing the will)
Suggestive (addressing the feelings)
Indicative (addressing the thoughts)
Interpretive:
Open interpretation
Clear interpretation
Complete interpretation in the system
The Sign
A sign can be viewed as an overall concept. Umberto Eco has described
the term as "everything that, on the grounds of a previously established
social convention, can be taken as standing for something else".
On the basis that a sign conveys an element of a message that is perceivable
by the senses, we can distinguish between the following three categories
of signs:
Auditory Signs (can be heard), e.g.:
Alarm clock
Siren
Half-time whistle
Visual signs (can be seen), e.g.:
Body language
Illustrations
Circumstances
Tacticle Signs (can be felt), e.g.:
Braille
Handshake
Keys for touch-typing
Visual Signs
A pictogram is a visual sign. Visual perception occupies by far the largest
area of the human brain, at 80% (followed by hearing at 10%).
Semantics
Sender / Meaning
Sigmatics
Relation between signs and signified
(degree of abstraction and declaration of motive)
Syntatics / Syntax
Visual, formal modes
Pragmatics
Intention
(influencing the receiver)
Dependent on repertoire of sender and
receiver
Dependent on context
- Other signs, culture, surroundings, knowledge, social environment
Icon Image Degree of icononicity
- Substantial resemblance to original
Degree of abstraction
- Substantial deviation from original
Symbol
- Representative
Index
- Indicator, pointer, mainly characters if pictorial, icon and symbol
possible as index
Form
- Dimension
Dot, line, flat surface, body, space
- Quality
round, angular, regular, irregular, free
- Quantity
large, small
- Demarcation
empty, fully or partially filled, open form, closed form, clear contours,
blurred contours
- Realization
structured, sketchy, firm, fuzzy, fragmented, free Brightness
Color
Movement
Material
Imperative
- Will, duty, Suggestive feelings
Indicative
Information, knowledge
Design and the Play Instinct
Tactics for dealing with structure, simplification and balance in design.
Tanagram
The Tanagram is a Chinese puzzle/game in which a aquare is divided into
a configuration of shapes. It consists of seven pieces, called "tans":
five triangles, one square and one rhombus. The rules are to make any
kind of figure or pattern using all these shapes.
The tanagram allows us as designers to play with the economy or means,
making the most of the least in our design.
This drawing is reproduced from the first volume of Hokusai's Rapid Lessons
in Abbreviated Drawing (Riakougwa Hayashinan, 1812). In the book Hokusai
shows how he uses geometric shapes as a guide in drawing certain birds.
This exercise may be compared to the Tangram in that both use geometric
means.
The Tangram, however, uses geometry as an end in itself- to indicate
or symbolize natural forms-whereas Hokusai uses it as a clue or guide
to illustrate them. In the artist's own words, his system "concerns
the manner of making designs with the aid of a ruler or compass, and those
who work in this manner will understand the proportion of things."
The Nine-fold Square
This character (above) for the word "tan" (sunrise) is designed
within an imaginary grid. Geometry functions here in a manner similar
to the previous illustration, namely as a guide to filling the space correctly,
but not to produce a geometric pattern.
The Chinese character is always written in an imaginary square. The nine
fold square, invented by an anonymous writer of the T'ang dynasty, has
been employed as the most useful, because it prevents rigid symmetry and
helps to achieve balanced asymmetry.1 At the same time it makes the writer
aware of negative and positive spaces. Each part of the character touches
one of the nine squares, thus achieving harmony between the two elements
and the whole.
Within this rather simple discipline the calligrapher is able to play
with space, filling it as they feel would be most appropriate. The composition
of Chinese characters, says Chiang Yee, "is not governed by inviolable
laws . . . however, there are general principles which cannot be ignored
with impunity."2
Modulor
The Modulor is a system based on a mathematical key. Taking account
of the human scale, it is a method of achieving harmony and order in a
given work. In his book, The Modulor, Le Corbusier describes his invention
as "a measuring tool (the proportions) based on the human body (6-foot
man) and on mathematics (the golden section). A man-with-arm-upraised
provides, at the determining points of his occupation of space-foot, solar
plexus, head, tips of fingers of the upraised arm-three intervals which
give rise to a series of golden sections, called the Fibonacci series."3
(1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, etc.)
The Modulor is a discipline which offers endless variations and opportunities
for play. Le Corbusier's awareness of these potentialities is evident
from the numerous references to the game and play in his book, such as:
"All this work on proportioning and measures is the outcome of a
passion, disinterested and detached, an exercise, a game."4 Further,
he goes on to say, "for if you want to play modulor.…"5
In comparison to most so-called systems of proportion, the Modulor is
perhaps the least confining. The variations, as will be seen from this
illustration, are practically inexhaustible (and this example utilizes
only a very limited number of possibilities). If, however, the system
presents any difficulties which happen to go counter to one's intuitive
judgment, Le Corbusier himself provides the answer: "I still reserve
the right at any time to doubt the solutions furnished by the Modulor,
keeping intact my freedom which must depend solely on my feelings rather
than on my reason.''6
Grids
Like the architect's plan, the grid system employed by the graphic designer
provides for an orderly and harmonious distribution of miscellaneous graphic
material. It is a system of proportions based on a module, the standard
of which is derived from the material itself. It is a discipline imposed
by the designer.
Unlike the Modulor, it is not a fixed system based on a specific concept
of proportion, but one which must be custom-made for each problem. Creating
the grid calls for the ability to classify and organize miscellaneous
material, with sufficient foresight to allow for flexibility in handling
content which may, for one reason or another, be altered. The grid must
define the areas of operation and provide for different techniques, pictures,
text, space between text and pictures, columns of text, page numbers,
picture captions, headings and other miscellaneous items.
Here is a simple grid system for a booklet. Devising such a grid involves
two creative acts: developing the pattern that is suitable for the given
material and arranging this material within the pattern. In a sense, the
creative ability required for the former is no less than that for the
latter, because the making of the grid necessitates analyzing simultaneously
all the elements involved. But once it is evolved, the designer is free
to play to his heart's content: with pictures, type, paper, ink, color,
and with texture, scale, size and contrast.
The grid, then, is the discipline which frees them from the time-consuming
burden of making certain decisions (dimensions, proportions) without which
fruitful and creative work is extremely difficult. They can move directly
to those aspects of the problem in which individual expression, novel
ideas, and freedom of choice are essential.
The grid system has as many detractors as it has adherents. It has been
condemned as stifling, rigid and cold. But this is to confuse the product
with the process. The grid does not automatically insure an exciting product.
The designer must still exercise all the experience at his command, discretion,
timing, and a sense of drama and sequence. In brief, the intelligent designer
will recognize that the grid can help him achieve harmony and order, but
also that it may, when and if necessary, be abandoned.
In addition to those already discussed, variations of the geometric plan
are to be found, among other places, in Japanese architecture, modern
painting, and in Byzantine masons' marks, such as the seal at right. This
seal "employs a mathematical key as its design basis. The thick lines
represent the mark, the thin lines represent the ground lattice which
allows an infinite number of combinations.''7 The geometric scheme is
the discipline in which the designer works. Designs stemming from such
a scheme are limited only by his imagination.
Using a grid system can also help to refine subtle illusions of weight
and intensity within a symbol when lines intersect and form darker areas
of unintended emphasis or visual weight.
Notice the subtle suggestion of greater visual weight and the illusion
that the tip of the forward pointing leg is thicked toward the end then
it is at the upper begining of this line stroke.
By slightly narrowing the width of the end of that same stroke the line
appears more in balance with the rest of the elements of the symbol.
Examples
Here is a simple and effective example of pictograms that illustrate
the disparity between the rich and poor.
Fedex uses a typogram (as well as an embedded diagram, see the arrow
formed by the capital E and the lowercase x) as it's primary symbol. For
it's sub-brand of Home Delivery service, it also incorporates an iconogram
of a dog with a package in it's mouth.
Closure and the use of negative space and the Ogden Plumbing logo. Design
by Matt Everson of astuteo.com
Designer's notes: "Ogden's core competency is great service, so
I was determined to create something friendly and personal. I focused
almost exclusively on the human figure as I knew this could illustrate
many things (response, strength, personal service, etc.)
In messing around with wavy, water-like shapes I developed the running
plumber image and saw the opportunity to incorporate the plunger. You'll
see I went back and forth with both a pipe wrench and a plunger in various
sketches.
Personally, I believe positive/negative space relationships make the
most "clever" logos so I'm always trying to discover these opportunities."
Conservative
Party United Kingdom uses a gestural mark within their organization's
pictogram symbol. The new mark references the "tradition and roots"
of a tree, while using bright and lighter colors which are a-typical of
associations with the perceived ethos of a conservative party. This palette
and subject matter feels very much like the re-branding of British
Petroleum to BP (Beyond Petroleum).
The Canadian Broadcasting Company has multiple channels, and touch points
each which has it's own unique identity, needs and audience. The organization
has attempted to use a simplified ideogram which uses jewel like faceted
radial structure. In some cases the red circle and half circles have begun
to be integrated into various aspects of the design including the web
page titles. But the most common way that an ideogram like this is utilized
is to bring about consistency across multiple sub-brands throughout a
large organization.
Below are several examples of how one symbol can be applied across multiple
contexts to create consistency and meaning in an organization.
Combine your symbols from the previous "you are an animal"
exercise, using the following methodologies.
Methodology 1 - Combine and Refine
Analyze your words and create three groups of word combinations with
two or three words that work well together.
Next, select two or three symbols from each of the word group combinations
that create the best literal / conceptual combinations, and then synthesize
them into a new symbol.
Make three refined symbols.
Now combine the three symbols to make one final symbol.
Methodology 2 - Get Feedback and Redesign
YOU
Present your words and symbols to the person sitting to your
left.
Tell them what the over arching issue is that you are pursuing
with your projects.
Now tell them what animal you selected and why. Share with them
the five words that you chose as a starting point to create your
sixty symbols.
YOUR NEIGHBOR (Partner with a peer in class and ask them to do the
following.)
Pick one symbol from each of the five word group combinations
which most closely relates to the animal/words.
From this group choose no more than three symbols which most
closely relate to the over arching issue that we are developing
a symbol for.
Make three refined symbols.
Now combine the three symbols to make one final symbol.
Methodology 3 - Simplify
Take one of the two symbols you created above, and now simplify it
using one of the simplification methods from our lesson notes (above.)
Tanagram
Hokusai's Geometric Proportions
Modulor Proportion
Grid System
Note you may also use simplified repeated forms, and play with
the Gestalt principles of similarity, proximity, repetition, continuance,
and structure to simplify your symbol.
Due next week:
You are an Animal symbols
Present three symbols printed and mounted as per syllabus specifications.
Verb symbols
Present three designs for your logogram, pictogram and diagram. (You
don't need to mount these three).
Considerations
Format: Final symbols must be postscript drawings (scan in your drawings
and then translate them to Adobe Illustrator)
Color: Black and White
Grid: Use a nine fold square grid system
Size: (not larger than a) 6x6 inches square
Research:
Related links
ISOTYPE Institute.
Examples of ISOTYPE pictograms used in various publications.
